Michel Foucault extensively explored the concept of parrhesia (free, courageous, or truthful speech) in his later works, particularly in his lectures and writings from the 1980s. This concept, rooted in ancient Greek philosophy, became a focal point in his analysis of the relationship between truth-telling, power, and subjectivity.
Major Works and Lectures Addressing Parrhesia
1. “Fearless Speech” (1983)
• This series of lectures, delivered at the University of California, Berkeley, explicitly centers on the concept of parrhesia.
• Foucault examines parrhesia in ancient Greek philosophy, especially in the works of Euripides, Plato, and the Cynics, and its role in politics, ethics, and self-care.
• He discusses how parrhesia involves risk, as the speaker tells the truth despite potential consequences, such as loss of status, exile, or death.
2. “The Government of Self and Others” (1982–1983)
• These lectures at the Collège de France focus on the concept of parrhesia in its political dimension, particularly as it pertains to democracy and the governance of others.
• Foucault explores the role of parrhesia in fostering a critical and truthful relationship between individuals and their rulers. He emphasizes how it can disrupt power structures by introducing a direct, courageous form of truth-telling.
3. “The Courage of Truth” (1983–1984)
• This final lecture series at the Collège de France elaborates on parrhesia as a practice of speaking truth to power and as an ethical practice of the self.
• Foucault connects parrhesia with the ancient Cynics, whose lifestyle embodied a radical commitment to truth-telling as a critique of conventional morality and politics.
• He explores how parrhesia becomes not only a political act but also a way of life that challenges societal norms and embodies the philosophical ethos of “courage.”
4. “The Hermeneutics of the Subject” (1981–1982)
• While parrhesia is not the central focus of these lectures, Foucault introduces the concept in the context of the care of the self (epimeleia heautou) and the practice of truth-telling as a form of self-transformation.
• He highlights the role of parrhesia in philosophical practices of self-formation and ethical living.
5. “On the Genealogy of Ethics: An Overview of Work in Progress” (1983)
• In this interview, Foucault briefly touches on parrhesia as a mode of truth-telling and self-examination within the broader context of his studies on ethics and the care of the self.
Themes of Parrhesia in Foucault’s Thought
• Truth and Risk: Parrhesia requires courage because it involves speaking truth to power, often at great personal risk.
• Ethics and Subjectivity: Parrhesia is an ethical practice of self-formation, where truth-telling transforms the speaker and their relationship to the world.
• Politics: Parrhesia is essential to democratic life, as it fosters critical dialogue and challenges power structures.
• Philosophy as a Way of Life: For Foucault, parrhesia exemplifies how philosophy is not merely theoretical but a lived practice that confronts the truths of existence.
Summary
Foucault’s exploration of parrhesia primarily occurs in his later works and lectures, especially Fearless Speech, The Government of Self and Others, and The Courage of Truth. He examines parrhesia as a critical practice of truth-telling, linking it to ethics, politics, and the care of the self, and frames it as a central component of the philosophical life.
