假言令式 (hypothetical imperative) 和定言令式 (categorical imperative)： １．假言令式：主觀目的所決定的客觀原則； ２．定言令式：不是建立在任何主觀目的所決定的客觀原則，所以道德原則適用於所有的人，道德要求不會因為個人的主觀意願而改變。意思是說，康德桑說，殺光匪諜和共匪，是定言令式。
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E5%AE%9A%E8%A8%80%E4%BB%A4%E5%BC%8F
Kant’s categorical imperative is a central concept in his ethical philosophy, developed in his Critique of Practical Reason (1788) and especially in the Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785). It represents the supreme principle of morality, a universal and unconditional command that applies to all rational beings at all times, guiding moral action based solely on reason.
1. What Is the Categorical Imperative?
• Imperatives:
Kant distinguishes between two kinds of imperatives, or commands of reason:
• Hypothetical Imperatives: These are conditional and depend on a specific goal or desire (e.g., “If you want to stay healthy, exercise regularly”). They apply only if the individual has a particular interest.
• Categorical Imperatives: These are unconditional and universal. They apply regardless of personal desires or goals (e.g., “Always tell the truth”). They command what one ought to do purely out of duty, independent of consequences or inclinations.
• Definition of the Categorical Imperative:
A categorical imperative is a universal moral law that must be followed by all rational beings because it is derived from reason itself, not from external factors like emotions or consequences.
2. Key Formulations of the Categorical Imperative
Kant provides several formulations of the categorical imperative, which are different expressions of the same underlying principle. The three most famous are:
A. The Formula of Universal Law:
• “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”
• This formulation emphasizes universalizability: before acting, consider whether the principle (maxim) guiding your action could be applied universally without contradiction.
• Example: If you consider lying, ask yourself: “What if everyone lied in similar circumstances?” If lying became a universal law, trust would collapse, and the very practice of lying would become meaningless, making the action morally impermissible.
B. The Formula of Humanity:
• “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.”
• This formulation focuses on respecting the intrinsic dignity and autonomy of every individual. Rational beings are ends in themselves, not tools to be used for personal gain.
• Example: Exploiting someone for personal benefit (e.g., using deception to manipulate them) violates this imperative because it treats the person as a mere means rather than an end.
C. The Formula of Autonomy:
• “Act only so that your will can regard itself at the same time as making universal law through its maxims.”
• This formulation emphasizes the importance of moral autonomy, where individuals are both the authors and subjects of the moral law. We act morally not because of external pressures but because we recognize the rational necessity of the law.
3. Key Features of the Categorical Imperative
1. Universality:
• The categorical imperative is binding for all rational beings, regardless of their specific circumstances or desires.
2. Rational Basis:
• It is derived from pure reason, not from empirical experiences or subjective feelings. This makes it objective and universally applicable.
3. Focus on Duty:
• Moral actions are determined by a sense of duty, not by the pursuit of personal happiness, pleasure, or consequences.
4. Deontological Ethics:
• Kant’s ethics is deontological, meaning that the morality of an action is determined by its adherence to duty and principle, not by its outcomes.
4. Examples of the Categorical Imperative in Practice
1. Lying:
• Lying violates the Formula of Universal Law because if lying were universalized, trust and communication would become impossible.
2. Breaking Promises:
• Breaking a promise treats the other person as a means to an end and cannot be universalized without contradiction.
3. Charity:
• Failing to help others in need violates the Formula of Humanity, as it disregards their intrinsic value and our shared humanity.
5. Why Is the Categorical Imperative Significant?
1. Foundation of Moral Philosophy:
• The categorical imperative provides a systematic, rational foundation for morality, independent of religion, emotion, or cultural norms.
2. Human Dignity and Rights:
• Kant’s emphasis on treating individuals as ends in themselves influenced the development of human rights, emphasizing the inherent dignity of every person.
3. Moral Autonomy:
• The concept highlights the role of individual autonomy and rational deliberation in moral decision-making, rejecting blind obedience to external authorities.
6. Critiques and Challenges
1. Rigidity and Absolutism:
• Critics argue that Kant’s ethics can be too rigid, providing no room for exceptions in complex situations (e.g., lying to save a life).
2. Conflict of Duties:
• Kantian ethics struggles to resolve conflicts between moral duties (e.g., telling the truth vs. protecting someone from harm).
3. Lack of Emphasis on Consequences:
• Kant’s deontological approach ignores the outcomes of actions, which some argue are essential for moral reasoning.
Conclusion
The categorical imperative is Kant’s effort to establish a universal and rational foundation for morality, guiding individuals to act out of duty rather than inclination or consequence. It emphasizes the universality of moral law, the dignity of human beings, and the autonomy of moral agents. While it has faced critiques, it remains one of the most influential and enduring ideas in ethical philosophy, shaping debates on morality, justice, and human rights. Its focus on reason, duty, and respect for others offers a timeless framework for thinking about how we ought to live and act.
