Not all ancient Indian philosophical schools adhered to non-dualistic (advaita) perspectives; several embraced dualistic (dvaita) views, acknowledging a fundamental distinction between entities such as consciousness and matter.
Dualistic Philosophical Schools:
• Sāṃkhya: This school posits a clear separation between puruṣa (consciousness) and prakṛti (matter), viewing them as two distinct realities. Liberation is achieved by discerning the difference between these two.
• Yoga: Aligned closely with Sāṃkhya, the Yoga school also maintains a dualistic framework, distinguishing between the individual self and the material world.
• Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika: These schools uphold a form of dualism that differentiates between the self and the body, emphasizing logical and metaphysical distinctions.
Non-Dualistic Philosophical Schools:
• Advaita Vedānta: This school asserts that the individual self (ātman) and ultimate reality (Brahman) are identical, promoting a monistic view of existence.
Mixed Philosophical Perspectives:
• Bhedābheda Vedānta: This tradition teaches that the individual self is both different and not different from Brahman, integrating aspects of both dualism and non-dualism.
In summary, ancient Indian philosophy encompasses a spectrum of views, ranging from strict dualism to absolute non-dualism, reflecting the rich diversity of thought within these traditions.