The flourishing of 長篇小說 (long-form fiction) in Ming China and the rise of the European novel, heralded by Cervantes’ Don Quixote (1605, 1615), may appear coincidental in terms of historical timing, but they both emerged from parallel cultural and technological developments rather than direct influence. The convergence of factors in both traditions suggests that the novel as a form was not simply a Western invention but an inevitable literary evolution across different civilizations.
Parallel Factors in China and Europe
1. The Rise of Vernacular Literature
• In China, the Ming period saw the dominance of 白話小說 (vernacular fiction) over classical prose. Works like Water Margin (水滸傳) and Journey to the West (西遊記) were written in accessible language, making them popular among a broad readership.
• In Europe, Cervantes’ Don Quixote was written in Spanish, rather than Latin, and it marked a shift towards storytelling in the language of the people, much like how Boccaccio’s Decameron (1349–1353) had earlier used Italian.
2. Printing Revolution and a Growing Reading Public
• China’s woodblock printing technology had been in use for centuries, but the Ming period saw an explosion of commercial publishing in cities like Suzhou and Hangzhou. Books became more accessible to the merchant class and educated commoners.
• Europe, following Gutenberg’s printing press (1440), experienced a similar expansion in book production. The 16th and 17th centuries saw a shift from manuscript culture to mass-printed books, allowing more people to read fiction.
3. The Influence of Oral Storytelling
• Many Ming novels evolved from oral storytelling traditions (話本), performed in teahouses and marketplaces. This gave them episodic structures, much like Don Quixote, which was initially published in two parts and exhibits an almost improvisational, serialized nature.
• European medieval literature had similar roots in chivalric romances, picaresque tales, and oral epics, which Cervantes deconstructed and parodied.
4. Societal and Cultural Transitions
• The late Ming period was marked by urbanization, economic expansion, and social mobility, which created new forms of leisure and entertainment—such as long fiction.
• Likewise, early modern Europe saw major social transformations, including the decline of feudalism and the rise of capitalism, leading to new individualistic narratives, a key theme in Don Quixote.
5. Satire and Social Commentary
• Both Ming novels and Cervantes’ work were satirical.
• Don Quixote mocked the outdated chivalric ideal in a rapidly modernizing world.
• The Plum in the Golden Vase (金瓶梅) was a Ming novel that critiqued corruption and hedonism in contemporary society.
• Water Margin and Romance of the Three Kingdoms dealt with heroism, morality, and political struggle, much like European political and picaresque novels.
Key Differences
1. Narrative Structure
• Ming novels often retained a loose, episodic structure based on oral storytelling and historical compilations.
• Don Quixote was more self-reflexive, playing with metafiction and questioning the nature of fiction itself, something that later European novelists like Laurence Sterne (Tristram Shandy, 1759) would develop further.
2. Philosophical vs. Historical Focus
• Chinese novels of the Ming period were often historical or mythical, aiming to preserve cultural memory (Romance of the Three Kingdoms).
• Cervantes’ work was philosophical and existential, examining illusion vs. reality, and introducing modern narrative irony.
3. Individual vs. Collective
• European novels, from Don Quixote onwards, increasingly centered around the psychology and interiority of the individual.
• Chinese long-form fiction, while exploring individual characters, often focused on the collective, whether it be a band of outlaws (Water Margin) or an extended family (Dream of the Red Chamber).
Conclusion: Coincidence or Parallel Evolution?
Rather than a direct influence, the flourishing of 長篇小說 in Ming China and the emergence of the European novel seem to be parallel literary evolutions driven by similar social, technological, and economic changes. While Kundera emphasizes Don Quixote as the birth of the novel in Europe, the long-form novel was already well established in China.
If there is a fundamental philosophical distinction, it is that Chinese novels of this period were historical, mythological, and social, whereas Don Quixote introduced modern self-awareness, irony, and interiority, setting the stage for the European novel’s later psychological depth. However, both traditions responded to the same fundamental human need: telling long, immersive stories in a changing world.
