Thursday, February 29, 2024
自性空
https://ppfocus.com/0/fod1e2ba1.html
https://yinshun-edu.org.tw/zh-hant/node/26698
意思是說，negativity 只能趨近，無法抵達，弔詭的是，在絕望的盡頭，才可能見到 vitality ，意思是說，大空方至大有，意思是說，你要俯首，見證眼前，這個詐（乍）現，有中見其空，才能空中見其有，拉岡桑說，你要享受眼前，這個詐（乍）現的有，因為這個詐（乍）現的有，就是你的症狀，就是你存在的理由，正常的精神分析師會說，你要在死之欲中，找到生之欲的殘餘 （remains)，才能「中和」那些黝暗的勢力，意思是說，正常的治療者，會急著提供希望，殊不知，治療是，一起見證絕望，一起承受絕望，一起找到希望，而治療者的定義是，知道絕望是什麼，卻畢竟沒有失去希望的那個人，意思是說，治療就是，讓病人見證你的畢竟沒有失去希望，以致他終於相信，希望是可能的，以上說明，治療者自己，須出入雲水幾度身，雲水就是 negativity vs vitality ，
Svabhava (Sanskrit: स्वभाव, svabhāva; Pali: सभाव, sabhāva; Chinese: 自性)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svabhava
literally means "own-being" or "own-becoming". It is the intrinsic nature, essential nature or essence of beings.
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E8%87%AA%E6%80%A7_(%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99)
在印度諸宗教中，自性（梵語：स्वभाव，svabhāva，巴利語：sabhāva，藏語：རང་བཞིན，威利轉寫：rang-bzhin），又稱「自體」、法體、體、實性，是個哲學術語，指所有事物（法）自身擁有、自體形成、自身決定存在形態的性質，是常住的、不變的、獨立，不依緣起而變化的；其外在特徵，則為自相。這個概念在不二論、毘濕奴派中是個重要的課題。佛教也接受了這個概念，在部派佛教時期發展出自己的論述。在大乘佛教和大圓滿等中，也是很重要的理論之一。
在佛教文獻中，它與本性（prakṛti）或我（ātman）經常被視為同義詞[1]，但自性的起源較晚，直到部派佛教的論藏中才使用這個術語。
梵語：svabhāva，由स्व（sav-，自己的）與bhāva（有）所組成[2]，這個術語源自古印度哲學，原指法（dhárma）存有自身的性質。與古希臘形上學中的本體、本質、實體，及康德哲學中的物自身（德語：das Ding an sich）的意義接近。在佛教採用之後，自性又被用來作為真如、法性與實際等的同義詞，唯有覺悟聖者才能了知[3]。這兩種觀點，形成世俗自性，與勝義自性的區別。佛教主張無常、無我，因此一般來說，不承認世俗自性存有，而改以空性來取代。但是在不同學派中，對於勝義自性是否存有，其見解不一，例如，如來藏學派認為如來藏擁有不變的本性，為勝義自性。
藏傳佛教五部大論
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E9%83%A8%E5%A4%A7%E8%AB%96
藏傳佛教通常所謂的五部大論為：
- 彌勒（Maitreya）的《現觀莊嚴論》（Abhisamaya-alaṅkāra），一說是無著 （Asanga）的作品；
- 世親 （Vasubandhu）的《阿毗達磨俱舍論》（Abhidharma-kośa）；
- 功德光（Gunaprabha）的《律經》；（Vinaya-sūtra）；
- 法稱（Dharmakīrti）的《釋量論》（Pramāṇavarttikakārika）；
- 月稱（Candrakīrti）的《入中論》（Madhyamakāvatāra）。
多為二勝六莊嚴所著作。
Madhyamakāvatāra （入中論） （月稱）
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81vat%C4%81ra
https://www.blisswisdom.org/publications/sutras/a/059
https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/B0045
《入中論》(梵文: Madhyamakāvatāra śāstra)，由月稱論師所著中觀應成派名著，以《華嚴經》中十地為骨架，宣揚龍樹菩薩等中觀師之空義，以破除唯識師所認為阿賴耶識具有的唯識三性。被藏傳佛教選入僧人必讀的五部大論之一。
Edward Conze （1904-1979）
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Conze
known primarily for his commentaries and translations of the Prajñāpāramitā literature.
Edward Conze has distinguished four phases in the development of the Prajñaparamita literature, stretching over more than 1,000 years (Conze 1960: 9 ff.; 1968: 11 ff.). From about 100 BCE to 100 CE we have the elaboration of a basic text. During the following 200 years this basic text was very much expanded, while the subsequent 200 years up to about 500 CE was characterized by the restatement of basic ideas in short setras on the one hand, and versified summaries on the other. During the final period, from 600–1200 CE, tantric influences make themselves felt, and we find evidence of magical elements in the setras and their use. (Mahayana Buddhism: The doctrinal foundations, 2e, Paul Williams, 2009, p. 48)
Soteriology (救贖論）
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soteriology
這就是自討苦吃，就是孟子的惻隱之心，就是大乘佛學的倫理學的優先性，就是佛洛依德的超越快樂原則，就是拉岡桑的 Le Sinthome，就是你我的症狀，就是你我存在的理由，就是推著巨石上山，再看著巨石滾落山下，再推巨石上山，再看著巨石滾落山下，沒完沒了的薛西弗斯，還好卡繆有說，我們必須想像，薛西弗斯是快樂的，當然，你要理解，那只是卡繆的想像，意思是說，我們不知道，薛西弗斯到底快不快樂，意思是說，我們知道還是不知道，他快不快樂，跟他「必須」，繼續徒勞，推著巨石上山，沒有半毛錢關係，意思是說，你我存在的理由，就是找到屬於自己的巨石，然後「必須」，假裝快樂，起碼要讓卡繆誤以為，我們是快樂的，
大眾部（梵文：Mahāsāṃghika；巴利語：Mahāsaṅghika）
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E5%A4%A7%E7%9C%BE%E9%83%A8
於南北兩傳對於部派分裂的說法，互有差異，見附表所示：
二、北傳分派說──《異部宗輪論》之說
一、南傳分派說－－《大史》之說
三十七菩提分法
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E4%B8%89%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83%E8%8F%A9%E6%8F%90%E5%88%86%E6%B3%95
https://www.zgs.org.tw/indexdetail.php?pid=94&sid=185&cid=1171
http://www.boder.idv.tw/37dp.htm
三十七道品分為七科門：一．四念處。二．四正勤。三．四如意足。四．五根。五．五力。六．七覺支。七．八正道
See also
六度
菩薩
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E8%8F%A9%E8%90%A8
此詞，與大乘佛學，起于四世紀有關，關鍵是地獄不空，誓不離地獄 （地獄不空，誓不成佛；眾生度盡，方證菩提），意思是說，關鍵不在自己，擺脫輪迴，永駐涅槃，而在他者，迎面而來，無盡眾生，意思是說，大乘佛學，義在倫理學的優先性，正如 Levinas 所說，倫理學作為第一哲學，而非如海德格所說，本體論作為第一哲學，
而大乘佛學，非空非有，亦空亦有，中觀為空 （形上學分為宇宙論和本體論，形上學作為第一哲學？），唯識為有 （知識論作為第一哲學？），乃至禪宗，放下空有爭辯，逕赴本心，四海雲遊 （nomadic van life)，不過你不要以為，禪宗和尚，沒有躲起來，偷偷用功，他只是不喜，吊書袋，長篇大論，乃至人間入世佛學，如龍天樓所述，山西太原大悲寺，那對師徒，老和尚和年輕和尚，齊拿起槍，抵抗共匪，意思是說，人間入世佛學，小心不要，以左翼佛學自詡，否則就是新左，畢竟不知，匪為何物，意思是說，人間入世者，除精進佛學道行，須辨世事，須有歷史判斷，
尚且，發菩薩行願者，「須」途經阿羅漢，否則徒為泥菩薩過江，自身難保，且「須」效百丈，一日不作，一日不食，意思是說，此二須，是起身入世，四海雲遊，基本前提，
苦集滅道，關鍵在苦，唯苦須分，自苦他苦，雖此二者，往往繳繞，但仍須明察，自苦需正常的心理治療，他苦需批判的心理治療，這就是我所提問，is psychotherapy Proustian or Kafkaesque？
Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anuradhapura_Maha_Viharaya
這是南傳佛教 （上座部佛教）（Theravada Buddhism) 的源頭，完整保存了巴利三藏，千年後弘法遂有所據，
Wednesday, February 28, 2024
Katyn massacre
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katyn_massacre
The Katyn massacre is the name of a series of killings by the Soviet army during World War II. Members of the NKVD killed nearly 22,000 Polish prisoners of war in a forest near Katyn, about 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Smolensk. Most of the prisoners killed were officers. The Katyn massacre happened in April and May 1940. Stalin ordered it on Beria's advice. In April 1990, the Soviet Union/Russia admitted it was responsible. In 1990, Mikhail Gorbachev officially apologised. The Katyn massacre is one in a series of similar massacres where up to 100,000 people were killed. Between 400 and 450 prisoners survived. People used their stories to change Soviet history books after the apology.
In the 1980s, Michail Gorbachev said that Beria and Vsevolod Merkulov were responsible. He said that the Katyn massacre was one of Stalin's atrocities.
Beria was accused of treason. He was executed in 1953. Merkulov was also executed in 1953 for being close to Beria. Beria and Merkulov were never tried for what they did at Katyn.
Arvo Pärt (b 1935)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=epJ4N_y7038&t=60s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvo_P%C3%A4rt
Tintinnabuli
Tintinnabuli (singular. tintinnabulum; from the Latin tintinnabulum, "a bell") is a compositional style created by the Estonian composer Arvo Pärt, introduced in his Für Alina (1976), and used again in Spiegel im Spiegel (1978). This simple style was influenced by the composer's mystical experiences with chant music. Musically, Pärt's tintinnabular music is characterized by two types of voice, the first of which (dubbed the "tintinnabular voice") arpeggiates the tonic triad, and the second of which moves diatonically in mostly stepwise motion.[1] The works often have a slow and meditative tempo, and a minimalist approach to both notation and performance. Pärt's compositional approach has expanded somewhat in the years since 1970, but the overall effect remains largely the same. An early example can be heard in Cantus in Memoriam Benjamin Britten.
Pärt's own comments on his style[edit]
- "Tintinnabulation is an area I sometimes wander into when I am searching for answers – in my life, my music, my work. In my dark hours, I have the certain feeling that everything outside this one thing has no meaning. The complex and many-faceted only confuses me, and I must search for unity. What is it, this one thing, and how do I find my way to it? Traces of this perfect thing appear in many guises – and everything that is unimportant falls away. Tintinnabulation is like this. . . . The three notes of a triad are like bells. And that is why I call it tintinnabulation."[2]
- "I could compare my music to white light which contains all colours. Only a prism can divide the colours and make them appear; this prism could be the spirit of the listener." – from the essay White Light by Hermann Conen, as translated into English by Eileen Walliser-Schwarzbart (found in the liner notes of the ECM release of Alina).[3]
- "Tintinnabuli is the mathematically exact connection from one line to another.....tintinnabuli is the rule where the melody and the accompaniment [accompanying voice]...is one. One and one, it is one – it is not two. This is the secret of this technique." – from a conversation between Arvo Pärt and Antony Pitts recorded for BBC Radio 3 at the Royal Academy of Music in London on 29 March 2000, as printed in the liner notes of the Naxos Records release of Passio.[4]
Theravāda Buddhism A social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo (Richard F. Gombrich, 1988)
Theravāda reached Ceylon from India in or very near 250 BCE. For more than a thousand years thereafter it existed mainly in Ceylon and southeast India. In the eleventh century it went from Ceylon to Burma; over the next two centuries it diffused into the areas which are now Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. (ibid, p. 2)
Mahayana Buddhism: The doctrinal foundations 2e (Paul Williams, 2009) (大乘佛學筆記）
There is a Tibetan saying that just as every valley has its own language … (ibid, p. 1)
每個山谷都有它的語言
… the expression ‘Mahayana’ (or its equivalent in the local language) has been used by Buddhists from perhaps as early as the first century BCE to the present day, (ibid, p. 2)
So the critique of the essentialist fallacy was always an integral part of Buddhist philosophy and spiritual practice, although not all Buddhist traditions went as far as the Madhyamika in its application. (ibid, pp. 2-3)
It is not a sect or school but rather perhaps a spiritual movement (or, as Jan Nattier insists below, a vocation) which initially gained its identity not by a definition but by distinguishing itself from altern- ative spiritual movements or tendencies. （ibid, p. 3)
Mahayana was, moreover, not a sudden phenomenon with a readily identifiable and unitary geographical or conceptual origin, it was not a planned movement spearheaded by a committee of geniuses (or fanatics). It developed over a number of centuries as an alternative and distinctive view of what Buddhism and the concern of some or perhaps even all Buddhists should ultimately be. Its growth and develop- ment in the early centuries was marked by, and from our perspective is all but identical with, the evolution of a new and distinctive canonical literature, the Mahayana sutras. (ibid, p. 3)
In the centuries after the death of the Buddha there arose a number of doctrinal schools and monastic sects.3 The latter are primarily identified through their own Vinayas, or monastic codes. (ibid, p. 3)
藉戒律而分派別 （Q: 大乘小乘，戒律有何差別？）
2/28/24 （星期三）
潤滑油，門鎖卡住，牛奶，狗間食，風口，灌進山谷，題，「無著世親與說一切有部，是否有涉」，你要理解，我們只是宇宙碎片，卻妄想成蘊，自以為是，這時禪宗和尚，遂微笑搖頭，起身雲遊，你要理解，其始也簡，其畢必繁瑣，而繁瑣恰為衰敗之始，你要理解，貴在清澈少語，不在長篇大論，話多字繁，意思是說，你要記住，一些字，一些片語，一些意象，然後忘記，所有其他，完整的句子，輕裝簡行，意思是說，Jack Reacher 就是雲遊僧，咖啡成癮的雲遊僧，
林秋梧 (1903-1934)
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9E%97%E7%A7%8B%E6%A2%A7
林秋梧（台灣話： Lim Tshiu-ngôo），1903年8月15日—1934年10月10日），法號證峰，別名林證峰、林洲鰲、林宣鰲，筆名坎人、守俄、林洲鰲，台灣台南人，是台灣日治時期的臺灣佛教僧侶和社會運動家，其思想受到民族主義與無產階級革命的社會主義思潮影響，並藉此批判當時台灣佛教現象，被喻為「解放佛學」。
嚴瑋泓. 林秋梧「左翼佛學」的哲學基礎. 洪子偉; 鄧敦民 (編). 啟蒙與反叛─臺灣哲學的百年浪潮. 臺北: 國立臺灣大學出版中心. 2019: 197 [2023-02-25]. ISBN 9789863503217. （原始內容存檔於2023-02-25）.
入世佛教 (Engaged Buddhism)
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E5%85%A5%E4%B8%96%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99
入世佛教（英語：Engaged Buddhism）[1]，亦有譯作人間佛教[2] 或左翼佛教[3][2]，意指佛教徒應該努力將他們內在的禪定體驗與佛法教義應用在社會、政治、環保、經濟之上，並且主動反抗不公義的事物。「入世佛教」的理念由越南禪宗僧人釋一行所提倡，並在西方世界成長。
歷史
這一概念早在當地於1930年代對抗法國殖民統治之時就已成型，但未有特定的名堂[2]；到了越戰時，由於一行禪師所熱心推展的和解運動，使他和「入世佛教」為西方社會所認識[4]。入世佛教是一種關懷社會的佛教運動，透過「關懷弱勢社群及參與社會運動，甚至不惜抗衡當權者」[2]，從而活出佛家思想的精神。2007年在緬甸發生由當地僧侶發起的反軍政府遊行示威事件，被認為是入世佛教在東南亞地區的一次重要參與。
著名人物
- 一行禪師，越南人，佛教和平友誼會的創立人
- 素拉·司瓦拉差，泰國反軍政府運動領袖，INEB創立人
- 阿姆倍伽爾，印度政治人物，印度賤民解放運動[5]
- 芮哲非（Christopher A. Reed）
- 證峰禪師，臺灣日治時期的臺灣佛教僧侶，參加文化運動與反殖運動，其思想受到民族主義與無產階級革命的社會主義思潮影響，並藉此批判當時台灣佛教現象，被喻為「解放佛學」。[6]
上座部佛教 (Theravada)
Theravada (Pāli, literally "School of the Elders") is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest extant school. The school's adherents, termed theravādins, have preserved their version of the Gautama Buddha's teaching in the Pāli Canon.
https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E4%B8%8A%E5%BA%A7%E9%83%A8%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99
藏外文獻包含對三藏逐句註解的義註和複注，以及通釋三藏的《清淨道論》。
https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/N0035
《清淨道論》（巴利語：Visuddhimagga），共三卷，五世紀印度僧人覺音所著，為上座部佛教中分別說部赤銅鍱系大寺派之重要論著，在南傳佛教有崇高之地位，有「修行者的百科全書」之譽。地位等同於說一切有部的《大毗婆沙論》。
https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T1545
本書對修行的前期準備工作、修習技巧、及每個階段都有明確的闡釋（見七清淨、十六觀智）。這本書的體裁與無畏山寺派的《解脫道論》相近，但對它的見解多所評破。《清淨道論》的重要註釋為法護的《清淨道論大疏鈔》（Visuddhimaggamahātīkā）。
說一切有部（梵語天城文：सर्वास्तिवाद，IAST：sarvāsti-vāda，巴利語：Sabbatthivāda，音譯為薩婆多部），簡稱為有部或一切有部，是部派佛教中先上座部分出的一部。
名稱音義
梵文Sarvāstivāda，分為三個部份：sarva（一切），asti（有）與vada（說），說一切有部這個名稱，最早可考見於呾叉始羅考古發現的古代銘文中，年代約在西元前一世紀，顯示這個部派的名稱在此之前就已經形成。根據《異部宗輪論》，在釋迦牟尼佛佛滅第三百年初，即二百餘年後，上座部分裂，根本上座部轉名雪山部，此時就出現了薩婆多尊者開創的說一切有部[2]。學術界目前無法確認，說一切有部這個名稱最早在何時開始使用。
在貴霜王朝時，說一切有部中的迦濕彌羅僧團造《大毘婆沙論》，認為自己的理論為最正統的學說，在《大毘婆沙論》自稱應理論者或應理論宗，批評其他宗派，如譬喻師與分別說部等。在《阿毗達磨俱舍論》（簡稱俱舍論）等著作中稱之為毘婆沙師或毘婆沙宗。
《阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論》（梵語：Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra），又稱《阿毘達磨發智大毘婆沙論》、《大毗婆沙論》、《鞞婆沙論》，佛教論書。佛教學者認為它約在西元150年前後，在迦濕彌羅國（現今喀什米爾）編著而成。迦濕彌羅的論師，尊奉《大毘婆沙論》，被稱為毘婆沙宗，在他們的努力下，《大毘婆沙論》成為說一切有部的最高論書。
Q: 說一切有部，與四五世紀，唯識論之起，是否有關？意思是說，一旦講「空」，就須講「有」？
Nikāya (Āgama) (阿含經）
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya
Nikāya (निकाय) is a Pāli word meaning "volume". It is often used like the Sanskrit word āgama(आगम) to mean "collection", "assemblage", "class" or "group" in both Pāḷi and Sanskrit.[1] It is most commonly used in reference to the Pali Buddhist texts of the Tripitaka namely those found in the Sutta Piṭaka. It is also used to refer to monastic lineages, where it is sometimes translated as a 'monastic fraternity'.
The term Nikāya Buddhism is sometimes used in contemporary scholarship to refer to the Buddhism of the early Buddhist schools.
Text collections
In the Pāli Canon, particularly, the "Discourse Basket" or Sutta Piṭaka, the meaning of nikāya is roughly equivalent to the English collection and is used to describe groupings of discourses according to theme, length, or other categories. For example, the Sutta Piṭaka is broken up into five nikāyas:
- the Dīgha Nikāya, the collection of long (Pāḷi: dīgha) discourses
- the Majjhima Nikāya, the collection of middle-length (majjhima) discourses
- the Samyutta Nikāya, the collection of thematically linked (samyutta) discourses
- the Anguttara Nikāya, the "gradual collection" (discourses grouped by content enumerations)
- the Khuddaka Nikāya, the "minor collection"
In Buddhism, an āgama (आगम Sanskrit and Pāli, Tibetan ལུང་ (Wylie: lung) for "sacred work"[1] or "scripture"[2]) is a collection of early Buddhist texts.
The five āgama together comprise the Suttapiṭaka of the early Buddhist schools, which had different recensions of each āgama. In the Pali Canon of the Theravada, the term nikāya is used. The word āgama does not occur in this collection.
The various āgamas
There are four extant collections of āgamas, and one for which we have only references and fragments (the Kṣudrakāgama). The four extant collections are preserved in their entirety only in Chinese translation (āgama: 阿含經), although small portions of all four have recently been discovered in Sanskrit, and portions of four of the five āgamas are preserved in Tibetan.[8] The five Āgamas are:
Dīrgha Āgama
The Dīrgha Āgama ("Long Discourses," Cháng Ahánjīng 長阿含經 Taishō 1)[9] corresponds to the Dīgha Nikāya of the Theravada school. A complete version of the Dīrgha Āgama of the Dharmaguptaka (法藏部) school was done by Buddhayaśas (佛陀耶舍) and Zhu Fonian (竺佛念) in the Late Qin dynasty (後秦), dated to 413 CE. It contains 30 sūtras in contrast to the 34 suttas of the Theravadin Dīgha Nikāya. A "very substantial" portion of the Sarvāstivādin Dīrgha Āgama survives in Sanskrit,[10] and portions survive in Tibetan translation.
Madhyama Āgama
The Madhyama Āgama (traditional Chinese: 中阿含經 "Middle-length Discourses")[9] corresponds to the Majjhima Nikāya of the Theravada school. A complete translation of the Madhyama Āgama of the Sarvāstivāda school was done by Saṃghadeva (Chinese: 僧伽提婆) in the Eastern Jin dynasty in 397-398 CE. The Madhyama Āgama of the Sarvāstivāda school contains 222 sūtras, in contrast to the 152 suttas of the Pāli Majjhima Nikāya.[11] Portions of the Sarvāstivāda Madhyama Āgama also survive in Tibetan translation.
Saṃyukta Āgama
The Saṃyukta Āgama ("Connected Discourses", Zá Ahánjīng 雜阿含經 Taishō 2.99)[9] corresponds to the Saṃyutta Nikāya of the Theravada school. A Chinese translation of the complete Saṃyukta Āgama of the Sarvāstivāda (說一切有部) school was done by Guṇabhadra (求那跋陀羅) in the Song state (宋), dated to 435-443 CE. Portions of the Sarvāstivāda Saṃyukta Āgama also survive in Sanskrit[12] and Tibetan translation. In 2014, The Collation and Annotation of Saṃyuktāgama (雜阿含經校釋, Chinese version), written by Wang Jianwei and Jin Hui, was published in China.
There is also an incomplete Chinese translation of the Saṃyukta Āgama (別譯雜阿含經 Taishō 100) of the Kāśyapīya (飲光部) school by an unknown translator, from around the Three Qin (三秦) period, 352-431 CE.[8] A comparison of the Sarvāstivādin, Kāśyapīya, and Theravadin texts reveals a considerable consistency of content, although each recension contains texts not found in the others.
Ekottara Āgama
The Ekottara Āgama ("Numbered Discourses," Zēngyī Ahánjīng, 增壹阿含經 Taishō 125)[9] corresponds to the Anguttara Nikāya of the Theravada school. A complete version of the Ekottara Āgama was translated by Dharmanandi (曇摩難提) of the Fu Qin state (苻秦), and edited by Gautama Saṃghadeva in 397–398 CE. Some believed that it came from the Sarvāstivāda school, but more recently the Mahāsāṃghika branch has been proposed as well.[13] According to A.K. Warder, the Ekottara Āgama references 250 Prātimokṣa rules for monks, which agrees only with the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, which is also located in the Chinese Buddhist canon. He also views some of the doctrine as contradicting tenets of the Mahāsāṃghika school, and states that they agree with Dharmaguptaka views currently known. He therefore concludes that the extant Ekottara Āgama is that of the Dharmaguptaka school.[14]
Of the four Āgamas of the Sanskritic Sūtra Piṭaka in the Chinese Buddhist Canon, it is the one which differs most from the Theravādin version. The Ekottara Āgama contains variants on such standard teachings as the Noble Eightfold Path.[13] According to Keown, "there is considerable disparity between the Pāli and the [Chinese] versions, with more than two-thirds of the sūtras found in one but not the other compilation, which suggests that much of this portion of the Sūtra Piṭaka was not formed until a fairly late date."[15]
Kṣudraka Āgama or Kṣudraka Piṭaka
The Kṣudraka Āgama ("Minor Collection") corresponds to the Khuddaka Nikāya, and existed in some schools. The Dharmaguptaka in particular had a Kṣudraka Āgama.[16] The Chinese translation of the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya provides a table of contents for the Dharmaguptaka recension of the Kṣudraka Āgama, and fragments in Gandhari appear to have been found.[17] Items from this Āgama also survive in Tibetan and Chinese translation—fourteen texts, in the latter case.[16][18][19] Some schools, notably the Sarvāstivāda, recognized only four Āgamas—they had a "Kṣudraka" which they did not consider to be an "Āgama."[18][20] Others—including even the Dharmaguptaka, according to some contemporary scholars—preferred to term it a "Kṣudraka Piṭaka." As with its Pāḷi counterpart, the Kṣudraka Āgama appears to have been a miscellany, and was perhaps never definitively established among many early schools.